capital punishment :: essays research papers

What is the best method of discipline? Human life is significant it doesn’t mater what sex you are or what you have done. On the off chance that something can be fixed, at that point that’s what you ought to consistently attempt to do first. The death penalty ought not be utilized in today’s society. In the event that an individual is seen as blameworthy and, afterwards on new proof is revealed you can’t breath life into that individual back. Detainment ought to be a final retreat; there are other condemning other options, which can work, to the greatest advantage of the wrongdoer and society. Most wrongdoers that submit murder is â€Å"out of the spike of the moment† and are probably not going to re-affront. Rather than detaining and guilty party for a mind-blowing remainder and cost the legislature $80,000 every year to keep them bolted up we could send him to discouragement program and furthermore to a recovery program to guarantee that he is intellectually steady and can be discharged go into society firmly viewed, without re-affronting. It would be significantly more helpful to spend our cash on keeping the wrongdoers from re-irritating at that point to simply send them directly to jail. Jail is an ineffectual method of discipline, rather than keeping the wrongdoer from re-insulting when they escape jail it just shows them how to be a superior crook. For instance in the event that you put a pooch with other wild mutts it will turn out to be progressively awful and presumably intellectually instable from what it has experienced however on the off chance that you take a similar canine and acquaint him with a protected and amicable condition and show it how it ought to carry on I ensure that that canine won't re-annoy. The administration is going through its cash in an inappropriate region. Because they are detained it doesn’t imply that they wont re-affront when they get out. I realize that a great many people in today’s society trust in tit for tat and most casualties need the wrongdoer to endure as they did yet vindicate is never the best approach. Retribution isn't a piece of the law framework. The points of discipline are:  ·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;To rebuff the guilty party in an equitable manner  ·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;To help with restoration  ·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;To prevent the guilty party from re-insulting  ·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;To ensure the network What I have recommended above spreads all of four criteria’s and not just that I trust it to be a more <a href=http://www.

Murder Research Paper free essay sample

The Uniform Crime Report is a yearly report that is given by the Federal Bureau of Investigation that presents information on chose classes of violations announced by the police. The police consistently prove the information that is introduced or caught in the Uniform Crime Report. As such this is a quantifiable effort of pretty much eighteen thousand urban zones, school, school, nation, state , and government law approval workplaces obstinately reporting data on infringement drew out beyond all detectable inhibitions. On the fierce violations whose information is caught by the UCR, murder is the among the wrongdoings just as assault, burglary, and irritated ambush. In New York City, the division of Criminal Justice administration is commanded by law with the obligation to fill in the central storage facility of bad behavior and capture information. This paper tries to investigate the information identifying with murder in New York City from the Uniform Crime Report with the accentuation on national and state crime percentages, guilty parties and attributes, hypothesis and topographical rates. We will compose a custom exposition test on Murder Research Paper or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Under the Uniform Crime Reporting Program, the vicious wrongdoing murder is communicated as murder and nonnegligent homicide which is described as the stubborn or nonnegligent executing of one individual by another. Gathering of the bad behavior of homicide is dependent on police assessment and not through court affirmation, therapeutic controller, coroner, jury or some other lawful body. This Offense characterization doesn't involve the accompanying circumstances: passing brought about via heedlessness, self destruction, or setback; sensible homicides; and tries to murder or snare to slaughter which are scored as exasperated assaults. Murder has been a worry in New York City for quite a long time. In an article in the field and stream magazine, E.B. Mann states that among the countrys ten biggest urban communities, New York had the eighth most reduced homicide for each 100,000 occupants in 1973(Mann 2006). This event has changed throughout the years with new patterns in the event of homicide in New York being realized.The pace of homicide in the United States of America has not been predictable over the course of the years with various events from year to year. The chronicled measurements recorded from year to year show differing designs in the events of homicide in the United states if America. For example, roughly 14,827 individuals were killed in the nation. This measurement was a 1.1 percent expansion from the killings that were recorded in 2011 yet was a 9.9 and 10.3 percent decline from the measurement in the years 2008 and 2003 separately (Fernandez-Lanier, 2014). For each 100,000 individuals 4. 7 killings happened. A correlation of the homicide rate in 2012 and 2011 uncover 0.4 percent expansion from 2011 to 2012. The quantity of murders recorded in the United States in the year 2017, was 17, 250 which was 8.6 percent expansion from the estimation in 2015 and 16.1 rate increment from the measurement in 2012 (Fernandez-Lanier, 2014). The homicide rate in New York City diminished by 14. 9 percent from 2016 to 2017 as 101 homicides were recorded in 2011 when contrasted with 86 in the year 2017. Eminently, the paces of homicide in New York City as well as the United States of America have been diminishing from year to year.Offender Characteristics can be found from the Uniform Crime Report extended murder information table which uncovers information starting at 2016. 60.8 percent of the guilty parties are male with the lesser percent of 7.6 being female. In any case, 31. 6 percent of the wrongdoers have obscure sexual orientation. Dark or African American is the race with the most noteworthy level of guilty parties at 35.9 percent, while White Offenders comprise 29.5 percent of the all out wrongdoers. Most Offenders are in the under 22 age sections with those under 22 years old being 2,905 of the populace. Most wrongdoers are of the age of 18 years or more with this age section speaking to 10.180 of the absolute 16,964 killings that were recorded in the year 2016. Of the realized age sections, most wrongdoers appear to be matured somewhere in the range of 20 and 24. Strikingly, a critical number of guilty parties are matured somewhere in the range of 25 and 29.The topographical investigation uncovers the insights of homicide in New York State and the various locales inside the area. The rate change in the homicides recorded in the States of New York somewhere in the range of 2015 and 2016 is an expansion of 1.6 percent while that somewhere in the range of 2007 and 2016 is a diminishing of 22.3 percent. In contrast with rates in New York City, the adjustment in the paces of homicide somewhere in the range of 2015 and 2016 is a 32. 5 percent decline (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2017). Different locales other than New York City delineate a comparative pattern in the adjustment in the pace of homicide violations throughout the years. For example, murders recorded somewhere in the range of 2015 and 2016 were 266 and 293 separately in non-New York City areas (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2017). These measurements speak to 10.2 increment. In any case, similarly as in New York City, different locales in New York State have recorded a lessening in the crime percentage with respect to the years 2007 to 2016, a 6.1 percent decline. At long last, the connection between the wrongdoer and the casualty as has been seen in New York State from year to year has been seen to be local. Most measurements show that residential manslaughters are normal in New York State, the majority of them including private accomplices while others including different individuals from the family. Close accomplices are individuals in a spousal relationship, ex-companion, same-sex or hetero relationship. The guilty party and the casualty might be living respectively or not. Relatives incorporate youngsters, guardians, kin or some other family relationship. For example, an exploration report by Adriana Fernandez-Lanier in October 2014 uncovers that in 2013, police in New York State vouched for an aggregate of 643 crime casualties in 604 occurrences. Casualties in 144 crimes (22. 4percent) has a household relationship with their wrongdoer (Fernandez-Lanier, 2014). Accordingly, it is apparent that the most transcendent type of connection between the guilty party and the casualty is for the most part in the local relationship.Many Theories have created to clarify criminal practices. Criminologists have join the most parts of human science, human sciences, brain research and natural speculations to propel their comprehension of criminal conduct. The Latent quality is a formative hypothesis which clarifies vicious wrongdoing. This quality hypothesis is set up right on time during childbirth however were increased from the get-go throughout everyday life and formed into criminal and fierce conduct. Numerous killers don't focus to kill someone else yet responds to what triggers their psyche. As research demonstrated that various individuals in the populace have an individual property or penchant that controls their tendency to carry out criminal acts (David Rowe, D. Wayne Osgood and W. Alan Nicewander) The dormant quality hypothesis can stay after some time in the person. Imprint Colvin expressed that you should have enough discretion to abstain from being pressured. The individuals who convey one of the inert qualities are at risk for turning out to be profession hoodlums; the individuals who come up short on the affinity to submit have a much lower chance. To lessen the wrongdoing society must improve authentic social help and diminish the powers of pressure. Survivors of vicious wrongdoing and their families have frequently experience trouble. Individuals become familiar with the procedure and mentalities of wrongdoing from cozy associations with criminal friends. Rough wrongdoing is frequently the aftereffect of imprudent activities. Everybody can possibly turn into a lawbreaker, yet a great many people are constrained by their bonds with society.ReferencesBIBLIOGRAPHY

Valid Contract free essay sample

Basic highlights of a legitimate agreement Contracts come in all shapes and sizes. Some are verbal, some are composed. Some are formal, some casual. The utilization of the web and electronic innovation is likewise getting progressively normal with regards to framing authoritative connections. It is, along these lines, critical to comprehend the fundamental highlights which make an agreement legitimate, official, and enforceable. What is an agreement? An agreement is an understanding between at least two gatherings that is expected to be enforcable. An agreement might be made: * Orally; recorded as a hard copy (counting by electronic methods or through a site); * By derivation or lead; or * By a mix of all or any of the abovementioned. Basic components? For a coupling agreement to be shaped there must be: * An offer which is acknowledged and for which substantial thought is given; * A goal to make a lawful relationship; and * Certainty of terms. Exceptional guidelines and standards may apply to gets that worry explicit topic, for example, work gets, the offer of land, and the offer of products. We will compose a custom article test on Substantial Contract or on the other hand any comparative subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The offer * Must be conveyed. * Can be denied whenever preceding acknowledgment. Must be recognized from an encouragement to treat which is the place a gathering conveys that it is set up to enter dealings with the end goal of framing an agreement. The acknowledgment * The acknowledgment: * Must be of the offer made, else it could be a  ©counter-offeri. * If posted, happens on the date posted, if by telephone, fax, or email, it happens when gotten. Thought * Must be evaluablei. Something must be provided in kind for the guarantee made by the offeror, eg cash. * Must not be unlawful or unnecessary. * Must not be something previously done or endured (past thought). Goal The gatherings must mean to be limited by the agreement. In any case, execution of the agreement might be restrictive on different issues occuring. Assurance * There must be conviction with regards to the gatherings, topic, and cost. Nonetheless, an agreement that leaves terms to be dictated by an outsider won't be invalid for vulnerability. Numerous agreements expect gatherings to consent to standard terms and conditions. Ensure you read the fine print with the goal that you comprehend what you are joining to. Demonstrating an agreement It might be essential eventually to demonstrate the presence of the agreement or clarify or efend its activities under the steady gaze of a court or some other discussion. An oral agreement might be whether it was ever shaped. A paper trail is critical to demo nstrating a composed or electronic agreement. Care ought to be taken not to pulverize pertinent composed proof of an agreement. Enforceability Although an agreement may have the entirety of the basic components, it may not be enforceable in light of some other issue, for example, * Lack of limit of one of the gatherings (eg one of the gatherings is a youngster). * Where a slip-up is made about the idea of the agreement. Help might be conceded under the Contractual Mistakes Act 1977 where the istake brings about a considerably inconsistent trade of qualities. * Where there has been distortion of a specific truth or realities actuating an individual to go into the agreement. Under the precedent-based law and the Contractual Remedies Act 1979 there might be an option to drop the agreement as well as case harms. * Where an agreement is illicit or shameless or is affected by pressure or undue impact of one gathering over another. * Where an agreement unduly limits an individual in their exchange. Solutions for penetrate Remedies for unjust disappointment by a gathering to play out their commitments under an ontract may include: * Damages; * Cancellation of agreement; or * Specific execution. Harms Generally, harms will be granted if the misfortune endured: * Was brought about by the penetrate; and * Is not very remote, e the misfortune was sensibly forseeable. The sum recoverable is generally the sum important to put the gathering not in penetrate in a similar situation as though the agreement had been performed. Retraction notwithstanding harms, customary law and the Contractual Remedies Act 1979 may permit involved with drop or certify an agreement where the break is because of a distortion. Explicit execution This is generally conceded for penetrate of agreements for the offer of land or one of a kind individual property. It isn't normally allowed if harms are viewed as a satisfactory cure; in the event that they are against or for a newborn child; or to uphold an agreement for individual administrations. Legal time limit The confinement time frame for every basic agreement is 6 years from the time the reason for activity, eg penetrate, emerges. At last Never sign an agreement except if you are certain you get it. For the most part, you won't have the option to receive in return later. In the event that there are any terms you are uncertain about get legitimate counsel.

Kennedy Mayfield Mr. Janes and Mrs. Moreland - Free Essay Example

Approximately 1.3 people joined the military in 2017. (Myers). Many citizens know their rights but what about their responsibilities? Like going the speed limit and serving when needed? Many citizens speed when late to work but wont join the military when were losing a war or in major need of help. Citizens responsibilities are just as important as their rights. However, most citizens are uniformed. Many Americans believe war is wrong and are protesting against it and the country. As American citizens we all have the responsibility to defend the country if the need should arise. 15 million people across 800 cities protested the 2003 invasion of iraq and 59% of americans believe their elected officials send our troops into harms way too often (Rangel). This is an example of citizens not being informed of their responsibilities. But, changing that might not be very hard. Americans protesting war are not following their civic responsibility to be informed and defend the constitution. The 3.3 million military households representing less than 1% of american families have begun virtually military class who are unfairly and disproportionately carrying the burden of war. Logically, if all americans are involved in our defense then every family will fully engage in any decision to use force. Consequently, force will only be used as a last resort. (Rangel). If citizens know their rights but not their responsibilities that could mean trouble. While most people know exactly what they are doing when they broke the law some could be completely confused when they get arrested for something they had no idea was illegal. In 2017 around 10 million people were arrested, sure many these people knew their rights like freedom from excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishments, But how many of these 10 million Americans knew they were breaking the law? Probably, most but not all. 1.2 million students drop out of high school every year but, did they know they have the responsibility to have and take your education seriously? Furthermore, everyone should know their responsibilities. So many people protested the war and protest the constitution knowingly. Both of these things are examples of not following civic responsibilities and is a big problem in America. If citizens were informed on situations in their cities and country so many horrible things could be avoided. Works cited Myers, Meghann. Top Recruiter: Just 136,000 out of 33 Million Young Americans Would Join the Army. Army Times, Army Times, 13 Oct. 2017 11 Facts About High School Dropout Rates. DoSomething.org USA Number of Arrests for All Offenses 1990-2017 | Timeline. Statista, www.statista.com/statistics/191261/number-of-arrests-for-all-offenses-in-the-us-since-1990/. Volunteer for Social Change 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Oct. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq. Rangel, Charles. All Americans Have a Duty to Defend Our Nation: Column. USA Today, Gannett Satellite Information Network, 15 Feb. 2013, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2013/02/15/two-years-compulsory-service-rangel/1922597/.

MUS-110CL-CL04 Spirituals to Rock and Roll MUS-110CL-CL04...

Grade Details - All Questions Page: 1 2 3 4 Question 1. Question : Which of the following musicals were based on classic plays and literature? Student Answer: Showboat, South Pacific and The King and I South Pacific, The Sound of Music, and Pal Joey Candide, Carousel, and Porgy and Bess Candide, My Fair Lady, and West Side Story Points Received: 0 of 3 Comments: Question 2. Question : These small instrumental ensembles were used as military bands in the Revolutionary War: Student Answer: Drumlines. Bagpipe corps. Fife and drum corps. Fiddle bands. Points Received: 3 of 3 Comments: Question 3. Question : The instruments used in minstrel shows usually included: Student Answer: a†¦show more content†¦Student Answer: â€Å"I Dream of Jeannie with the Light Brown Hair† â€Å"I Wish I Was in Dixie Land† â€Å"Oh Susanna† â€Å"The Old Folks at Home† Points Received: 3 of 3 Comments: Question 15. Question : In the 19th century a religious revival known as __________ was the inspiration for hun dreds of songs known as spirituals. Student Answer: the Protestant Reformation the Council of Trent the Great Awakening the camp meeting Points Received: 3 of 3 Comments: Question 16. Question : American Indians did not have a word for music in their native languages because: Student Answer: music was not a part of their culture. they considered music to be the work of evil spirits. music was so much a part of life that they did not consider it a separate activity. they did not want their people to waste time with performance arts. Points Received: 3 of 3 Comments: Question 17. Question : The practice of __________was adopted by congregations in which a more or less musically literate leader sang one line of the psalm, which the congregation then repeated in unison. Student Answer: lining out echo singing song leading song directing Points Received: 0 of 3 Comments: Question 18. Question : One of the most famous and accomplished touring minstrel troupes was known as: Student Ans wer: Christy Minstrels. The Kentucky Minstrel

Essay about American Civil War and United Fruit Company

In, â€Å"Testimony: Death of a Guatemalan Village,† Victor Montejo describes events surrounding the military rà ©gimes occurring throughout Guatemala. The book itself is an eyewitness account detailing one instance of violence between the indigenous peoples villages civil patrol and the army. This occurrence leads to the execution and imprisonment of many villagers. Even though the book is mainly a testimony by one person, in which he discusses the personal conflicts and struggle between himself and the army, the account is structured around the Guatemalan civil war and the conflict between the government and civilians. The Guatemalan Civil War occurred between the years 1960 to 1996. It was a battle between the government of Guatemala and†¦show more content†¦The army also rob and burn down parts of the village. In one case, a young man who was part of the patrols is shot and as he laid dying, reveals that the uniform worn (in that particular day) by the army was similar to the ones the guerrillas would wear, except that the guerrillas didn’t cause any harm as they walk through the village. This has a lot to say about how the civilians saw the government’s military, and how they saw their repressive state; being something they had to do without question due to fear. Taking a look at the testimony alone, we can also see how society was effected. Out of Montejo’s brief background detailing the failures of the presidents and the absolute repression faced by the civilians, we can conclude that the governments force to keep the guerillas unsuccessful was limited and pushed society into rebellions. In other words, as the army continued to torture and persecute the innocent, many found it necessary to fall into the hands of the guerrillas in order to stamp out their oppression. Maria Lupe’s account is similar to Montejos. She describes her hardships as a house wife, working on a plantation of a rich land owner. Her husb and worked for 50 cents per day, and her payment was in food. She mentions moving closer to the north in a townShow MoreRelatedThe Age Of Exploration By Christopher Columbus1358 Words   |  6 Pagesknown as the â€Å"Age of Exploration†. Europe began to colonize the countries they had â€Å"discovered†. A major part of the world that they colonized was Latin America. Spain was the first to colonize, and the United States started to take interest in Latin America towards the 19th century. Europe and The United States both took interest in Latin America, but for different reasons. Spain was the first European nation to colonize Latin America, beginning with Christopher Columbus voyage in 1492. 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These ships were sent off to establish stable access to raw materials like sugar and bananas, and for the bankers with loans to local governments that might not be repaidRead MoreThe Culture Of The Peoples From The Highlands Of Guatemala1259 Words   |  6 Pagesviolence and tragedy. The history of mass migration towards city centers and their outskirts can be traced to the overthrow of the democratically elected president Jacobo Arbenz, in the year 1954, which was the catalyst for a 36 year long civil war in the Central A merican nation. Many of the countries indigenous Mayan population faced and still face high levels of discrimination, genocidal violence, inadequate housing, coupled with high infant mortality rates, and low levels of literacy and education attainmentRead MoreThe Battle Of The Civil War1233 Words   |  5 PagesIt is evident that the Civil War helped shape America into the country it is today. 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Solar Energy and Its Social Consequences Essay Example For Students

Solar Energy and Its Social Consequences Essay To understand the social consequences of solar energy, one must be aware of what solar energy is. Solar energy is a radiant energy produced in the sun as a result of nuclear fusion reactions. It is transmitted to the earth through space in quanta of energy called photons, which interact with the earths atmosphere and surface. The strength of solar radiation at the outer edge of the earths atmosphere when the earth is at its average distance from the sun is called the solar constant. The intensity of energy actually available at the earths surface is less than the solar constant because of the absorption and scattering of radiant energy as photons interact with the earths atmosphere (Thorsen, 1997, Encarta). The amount and strength of the solar energy available at any point on the earth depends on the day of the year, time of day, the latitude of the collection point, and the orientation of the object used in collection. The earth is rich in abundant natural resources. However, the earths natural resources are being consumed at an astronomical rate. It will only be a matter of time before those resources are depleted and we are forced to consider other alternatives. We can wait until every resource has been consumed and go back to living the way mankind did a century ago, or we can continue to move forward and explore the possibilities of harnessing the power of something that remains constant in our livesthe sun. Mankind has been using the natural energy of the sun for ages. Interactions between the suns energy, the oceans, and the atmosphere produce winds that have been used for centuries to turn windmills. Modern applications of wind energy, when attached to generators, produce electricity. Through photosynthesis, solar energy contributes to the growth of plant life masses that can be used as fuel, such as alcohol or methane. Solar energy is a clean and safe source of natural energy that should be considered as an alternative energy source for the future. The sun is not indigenous to any one country. It is a resource that can be utilized globally. Individuals and countries could possibly become more self sufficient in energy resources (Alcorn, 1997, p. 212). An idea that has been proposed to produce power on a large scale would involve placing giant solar modules in earths orbit where energy generated from sunlight would be converted to microwaves and beamed to antennas on earth to be converted to electric power (Thorsen, 1997, Encarta). To produce as much power a five nuclear power plants, ten million pounds and several square miles of solar collectors would have to be assembled in orbit and an earth based antenna five miles in diameter would be required. This vision requires an exorbitant amount of money. To my knowledge, there isnt a government on earth that is willing, thus far, to fund such a project. The potential future uses of solar energy are confronted with opposition. So far, the cost of constructing devices that would be able to harness a free energy source is at the top of the list. I realize there is a lot of money involved, but I really cant think of any technological discovery that was free to begin with. Every invention has come about through scientific research, and research requires money. Some have expressed concern regarding certain industries having to change their products to supply the new needs of society (Alcorn, 1997, p. 213). Due to new and expected futures advances in technology, the world will always be forever changing. Some industries will initially absorb some monetary and opportunity costs, but it is the price they will have to pay for progression. Another public concern is Mother Nature. If we experience too many cloudy days in a row; then we will need a backup source of energy. Perhaps it would be a good idea to explore the possibilities and fund the research for solar energy before we deplete our backup resources. .

Personality an Example of the Topic Psychology Essays by

Personality Introduction Puzzling people move all around us. You are one and I am one. Evidence to show that we are single, clearcut individuals is meager; in fact, a large number of studies indicate that each of us alters our personalities and behaves differently, depending upon circumstances. Apparently the same ability holds true regarding ourselves. We do all manner of quite bizarre things that don't fit together objectivelylike the good Christian tax-evaderbut these contradictions don't make us come apart or feel we are two different peopleinstead, I am just me, all one person. We see all parts of ourselves as fitting together; usually it is the mental patient, ironically, who detects the discrepancies, and they are quite worrisome to him. Need essay sample on "Personality" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Personality theorists fall prey to the desire for unity for its own sake all the time. As one author has pointed out, for example, if a woman is sometimes fiercely independent and sometimes rather docile, the psychologist tends to lump these two behaviors together, concluding, for example, that she is actually quite independent and dominating, but to satisfy this need for domination, sometimes she must "pretend" to be docile (Mischel, 2001). This is pretty tricky reasoning. The point is that personality theorists to oversimplify; at least be aware of this as we discuss personality. Nonetheless, science cannot advance without some organization, and personality theories provide this structure, that is, something psychologists can at least "grab hold of" so they have some framework for discussion and experimentation. Personality is difficult to define for at least two reasons. For one, personality is differently defined by different theorists. Freud, for example, would have said that personality is made up of behavior patterns resulting from the handling of sexual and aggressive impulses during childhood. Others see the origins of behavior differently. The second difficulty is that personality is the ultimate in complexity and variability. How do we explain Mr. Jones, who is the following: a tax-evader, a shifty business operator during the week, a faithful and apparently sincere churchgoer on Sunday, a dynamo at work and very meek at home? What is personality? Any definition could give rise to legitimate complaints. But, in order to give the discussion some structure, a definition is needed: personality consists of relatively enduring behavior patterns that result in fairly consistent reactions to a number of different situations. Personality theory attempts to pinpoint specific types of people, determine what is responsible for producing that type of person, and make predictions about their behavior that will hold true most of the time. Background The Meaning of Personality Personality is a fascinating area of study, but a difficult concept to define. In this study, we define personality as the organization of an individual's distinguishing characteristics, attitudes, or habits; it includes the individual's unique ways of thinking, behaving, or otherwise experiencing the environment. The qualities that make up one's personality are relatively stable and organized into a totality. With this definition of personality in mind, we can identify four separate tasks that personality psychologists have addressed (Runyan, 2003). To analyze individual and group differences. Why are people different from each other? Are members of some groups more similar to each other than other groups? For example, are there personality dimensions that influence the way we experience life events such as the midlife transition? To understand particular individuals. Students tell us that this is a major reason that they take introductory psychology. They want to find out what makes peoplethemselves and others do the things they do. To study personality processes. There are many personality processes, including altruism and sex-role differences. For example, are masculinity and feminity dimensions of personality that influence behavior in predictable ways? To develop general theories of personality. Theories of personality are unified explanations for the totality of individual behavior. Discussion Research Issues in Personality Psychologists have approached these tasks using a wide variety of research methods (Craik, 2003). Knowledge about people's personalities can be obtained from their everyday conduct, as is the case in field studies. People also reveal themselves through the products of their imaginations, and this technique is used when personality tests known as projective tests are given to people. A straightforward approach to gathering personality data is to ask people to fill out self-report inventories about their characteristics. With this method, two risks are apparent: People may not be fully aware of what they are like; and if they are, they may wish to cover up some of the flaws they perceive. We gain information of a different sort about personality when we ask others for their impressions of specific people. This technique is known as the use of observer reports in research. Life histories, such as those biographies and autobiographies, and archival material provide a rich source of data on particular individuals for the study of personality. Clinical case histories, on which many of the major theories are based, fall into this category. The most carefully controlled information comes from behavior in laboratory studies of personality. Although control is maximized in laboratory studies, it is sometimes at the expense of naturalistic experiences. No single source of information about personality is the ideal, correct source. All these methods are important for obtaining information about personality. Published research on personality, however, relies heavily on self-report inventories and laboratory studies with limited samples of people. Between 1998 and 2002, 85% of the research published in major journals used these two methods, and approximately two thirds of the research used under-graduate samples (Craik, 2003). However, there has been a trend in recent years toward greater use of biographical material, sometimes referred to as psychobiography, in the study of personality (Alexander, 2003). Psychoanalytic Models of Personality According to psychoanalytic models of personality, people are born with psychic energy that is transformed and redirected during their normal course of development into complex human behavior. In the psychoanalytic view, the human mind is an active agent, with divisions that keep some material from entering conscious experience. We consider in detail psychoanalytic view, the human mind is an active agent, with divisions that keep some material from entering conscious experience. We consider in detail the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud and, to a lesser extent, other psychoanalytic perspectives. Freud's Psychosexual Theory Freud developed most of his theory through his studies of his patients, people who sought his help or were referred to him for help for psychological problems. These problems, he believed, were related to the ways that instinctual energy was channeled. For example, patients suffering from hysteria, a disorder in which physical symptoms are present without apparent organic basis, were suspected if allowing their sexual energy to build up without appropriately discharging (Freud, 1977). According to Freud, there are two sources of instinctual energy that "are the ultimate cause of all activity" (Freud, 1977). One instinct accounts for feelings and behavior related to self-preservation and preservation of the species, including sexual behavior; Freud called this the life instinct (eros). The other instinct, called the death instinct (thanatos), impels the person toward aggression and destruction (Freud, 1977). Most of Freud's work on personality was concerned with the life instinct. However, Freud's views in aggression and its place in civilization merit a slight digression. Primitive people, according to Freud, had no restrictions on the expressions of their instincts. Expression of sexual urges was not restricted by social norms and decorum. Contemporary civilized societies, however, place fairly rigid restrictions on sexual expression. We can only have intercourse in appropriate places and with certain people or we face severe social sanctions. Similarly, civilization limits expression of our aggressive instincts. Freud felt that aggression was a derivative of the death instinct, and that it could be channeled in two different directions. If directed toward the self, then the individual risks self-destruction. If directed away from the self, aggression is the result. Because of the instinct demands some kind of expression, a decrease in aggression increases the risk of self-destruction (Freud, 1977). Freud's views on aggression are controversial in a number of respects. For one thing, he tells us that civilization itself is part of our problem. Conclusion From a practical point of view, Freud's notion that aggression is an instinct that demands some kind of releaseinstead of a form of social behavior that can be increased or decreased through environmental circumstancesis especially controversial. Consider the case of television violence. If Freud's views are correct, then watching televised violence might actually be a good thing. People could reduce their aggressive instincts through catharsis, on relief of the emotions from viewing the experiences of others. Perhaps no aspect of everyday life is more common than watching television. In the average American household the television set is on more than 6 hours a day, and the average child between the ages of 2 and 11 watches it for about 3 hours daily. Estimates are that by high school graduation, the average American child will have spent 11,000 hours in the classroom and 15,000 hours watching television. Programs aimed specifically at children, such as Saturday morning cartoons, contain a great deal of violence. The National Institute of Mental Health's report on television and behavior estimates that children's weekend programs contain more violence than do prime-time shows (NIMH, 2002). Hundred of studies have examined the relationship between television violence and actual aggression among viewers. In one of these studies, more than 500 children in grades 1 through 5 participated in a short-term longitudinal study. Reference: Alexander, I. (2003). Personality, psychological assessment, and psychobiography. Journal of Personality, 56, 265-294. Craik, F.I.M. (2003). Personality research methods: A Historical perspective. Journal of personality, 54, 18-51. Freud, S. (1977). Analysis of a phobia in five year old boy. In A Strachey " J. Strachey (Eds. And Trans.), (Vol. 10,pp. 165-305). New York: Penguin (Penguin Freud Library). Mischel, W. (2001). Continuity and change in personality. Amer. Psychol. 34:1012-1018. National Institute Mental Health (2002). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties: Vol. 6. Summary report (DHHS Publication No. ADM 95-1195). Washington, DC:US Government Printing Office. Pervin, L.A. (2005). Personality: Current controversies, issues, and directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 83-114. Runyan, W.M. (2003). Progress in psychobiography. Journal of Personality, 56, 295-326

The Universal Living Wage essays

The Universal Living Wage essays According to the 2002 Human Development Report, from the United Nations Development Program, of the 6.2 billion people on earth, 1.2 billion live on less than $1 a day for their hard work. This would be fine if they were able to afford basic food, clothing, shelter, and access to health care on this amount. Unfortunately, no one can. All across the world, people are desperate to work, but the wages they are paid wont afford them even the basic necessities in life. According to Global Inc., an Atlas of the Multinational Corporations by Medard Gabel and Henry Bruner, there were 63,000 multinationals in 2003 that are taking advantage of this impoverished situation with their 821,000 subsidiaries. They are globetrotters in the pursuit of the bottom line. (Bruner These companies attach themselves to no single country. Instead, they operate without ties and allegiance to any nation or any group of nations. While they unabashedly pursue maximum capitalism, some of their business application practices come into question. Their pursuit of riches along with their lack of allegiance leads them to make their businesses mobile. They locate their operations in the direct vicinity of the lowest paid workers around the world. Once it becomes cost effective to abandon one cheap source of labor or workers start to organize in an effort to improve their working conditions or raise their wages, the parent organization picks up and leaves. Jobs that started in the United States shifted to Mexico in pursuit of the $5.00 a day wage. Recently, those jobs shifted from Mexico to Haiti and China where workers are earning $4.00 a day wages. (Bruner It is estimated that one in ten jobs will be outsourced to countries like India by the end of 2004. At the end of five years, it is expected that this will no longer be cost effective and those same jobs will move to China. (Bruner & Gabel, 2004) The fact that these trans-nationa...

Marketing plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Marketing plan - Essay Example The application of these media would facilitate the building of a loyal customer base. The products of Pizza Restaurant are Pizza and other food items. However a lot of the customers like to spend their time in the restaurant because they like leisure and entertainment activities. Therefore the critical factor is to design a message that will appeal to the emotions of the customers. The message should communicate the exciting features that are offered by the restaurant. One possible message can be: Pizza Restaurant delivers the best products in town. This simple message will appeal to the emotions of the customers, particularly when delivered through attractive audio-visuals. Such a message broadcast online and through TV can communicate to the mass market and create an emotional appeal for Pizza Restaurant. Answer to Question 2 The most important element is the positioning strategy. Implementing an effective positioning strategy will enable Pizza restaurant to emphasize upon the uni que quality of its products and services (Armstrong and Kotler, 2005). Since the restaurant will be targeting customers most of whom are from rich families, the critical success factor is to create a unique positioning within the minds of the customers (Fred, 2006).

Law Of The Workplace Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Law Of The Workplace - Case Study Example t and should therefore be viewed as such. To this end, Dillon L.J was quoted as saying: I have no hesitation in concluding that the relationship between a church and a minister of religion is not apt, in the absence of clear indications of a contrary intention in the document, to be regulated by a contract of service. I do not doubt that there probably are binding contracts between the Methodist Church and its ministers in relation to some ancillary matters, such as the compulsory superannuation scheme and the obligation, of which Mr. Parfitt told us, on trainees to repay a proportion of the expense of their training if they do not remain in the ministry for at least 10 years. These however are no part of the contract of service, either on reception into full connection or on appointment to a circuit, which Mr. Parfitt seeks to set up. Page 183H. It is therefore in the light of the foregoing that the central focus of this paper is to conduct an exhaustive analysis of all the contending issues that have risen with the dawn of this case. The paper will be using theological and legal references to buttress points where they are essentially relevant for serving the purpose of the thematic framework of the essay. It should also be noted that whilst, the essay is cautious not to engage in too many technicalities that are perhaps beyond the scope of this essay, much of the theological and legal references will be made intermittently and in some instances it will be done concurrently in order to reduce verbosity and enhance simplicity for the comfort of the reader. According to the Employment Relations Act 1999 section 23, the government of the United Kingdom has being bestowed the power of employment and its rights to people and institutions who are not defined within the conventional group of employees. This category includes among others, office holders such as the clergy and ministers of religion, casual workers, agency workers, homeworkers and what have you. By this Act, it is not intended that an entirely new strand of labour force was being introduced. On the contrary, the thrust of this Act stipulates that this category of workers should be given the privilege of being a part of the rights mainstream employees enjoy. The Archbishops' Council of the Church of England gave a laudable contribution to a 2002 discussion document under the auspices of the Department for Trade & Industry concerning Employment Status that concerns Statutory Employment Rights. The Council said "the clergy are entitled to terms and conditions of service which adequately protect their rights, recognize their responsibilities and provide proper accountability arrangements." In the light of this a number of observers argued that some clergy men had an additional

Tesco Essay Example for Free

Tesco Essay The Tesco. com site acts as a portal to most of Tescos products, including various non-food ranges (for example, Books, DVDs and Electrical items under the ‘Extra’ banner), Tesco Personal Finance and the telecoms businesses, as well as services offered in partnership with specialist companies, such as dieting clubs, flights and holidays, music downloads, gas, electricity and DVD rentals. Tesco Competitors Tesco currently leads the UK’s other leading grocery retailers in terms of market share. This pattern is repeated online. The compilation below is from Hitwise (2005) and the figures in brackets show market share for traditional offline retail formats from the Taylor Nelson Softres Super panel (see superpanel. tns-global. com) 1. Tesco superstore 27. 28% (29% of retail trade) 2. Asda (13. 36%) 3. Asda @t home 10. 13% (17. 1%) 4. Sainsburys (8. 42%) 5. Tesco wine warehouse, 8. 19% 6. Sainsburys to you 5. 86% (15. 9%) 7. Waitrose. com 3. 42% (3. 6%) 8. Ocado 3. 32% (owned by Waitrose, 3. 6%) 9. Lidl 2. 49% (1. 8%) 10. Aldi-UK 2. 10% (2. 3%) Some companies are repeated since both their main site and the online shopping site are reported on separately. Asda. com now seems to be performing in a consistent manner online to its offline presence. However, Sainsburys online performance seems to be significantly lower compared to its offline performance. Some providers such as Ocado which originally just operated within the London area have a strong local performance. Notably, some of Tesco. com competitors are absent from the Hitwise listing since their strategy has been to focus on retail formats. These are Morrisons (12. 5% retail share, Somerfield (5. 5%) and Co-op (5. 0%). Promotion of service As with other online retailers, Tesco. om relies on in-store advertising and marketing to the supermarkets Clubcard loyalty schemes customer base to persuade customers to shop online. NMA (2005) quotes Nigel Dodd, marketing director at Tesco. com as saying: ‘These are invaluable sources as we have such a strong customer base’. However, for non-food goods the supermarket does advertise online using keyword targeted ads. For existing customers, email marketing and direct mail marketing to provide special offers and promotions to customers is important. According to Humby (2003), e-retailer Tesco. om use what he describes as a ‘commitment-based segmentation’ or ‘loyalty ladder’ which is based on recency of purchase, frequency of purchase and value which is used to identify 6 lifecycle categories which are then further divided to target communications: â€Å"Logged-on†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Cautionary†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Developing†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Established†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Dedicated†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Logged-off† (the aim here is to winback) Tesco then use automated event-triggered messaging can be created to encourage continued purchase. For example, Tesco. com has a touch strategy which includes a sequence of follow-up communications triggered after different events in the customer lifecycle. In the example given below, communications after event 1 are intended to achieve the objective of converting a web site visitor to action; communications after event 2 are intended to move the customer from a first time purchaser to a regular purchaser and for event 3 to reactivate lapsed purchasers. * Trigger event 1: Customer first registers on site (but does not buy). Auto-response (AR) 1: 2 days after registration e-mail sent offering phone assistance and ? 5 discount off first purchase to encourage trial. * Trigger event 2: Customer first purchases online. AR1: Immediate order confirmationAR2: 5 days after purchase e-mail sent with link to online customer satisfaction survey asking about quality of service from driver and picker (e. g. item quality and substitutions). AR3: Two-weeks after first purchase Direct mail offering tips on how to use service and ? 5 discount on next purchases intended to encourage re-use of online services. AR4: Generic monthly e-newsletter with online exclusive offers encouraging cross-sellingAR5: Bi-weekly alert with personalised offers for customer. AR6: After 2 months ? discount for next shop. AR7: Quarterly mailing of coupons encouraging repeat sales and cross-sales. * Trigger event 3: Customer does not purchase for an extended periodAR1: Dormancy detected – Reactivation e-mail with survey of how the customer is finding the service (to identify any problems) and a ? 5 incentive. AR2: A further discount incentive is used in order to encourage continued usage to shop after the first shop after a break. Tesco’s online product strategy New Media Age (2005) ran a profile of Laura Wade-Gery CEO of Tesco. om since January 2004 which provides an interesting insight into how the business has run. In her first year, total sales were increased 24% to ? 719 million. Laura, is 40 years old, a keen athlete and has followed a varied career developing from a MA in History at Magdalen College, Oxford, an MBA from Insead; Manager and partner in Kleinwort Benson; Manager and senior consultant, Gemini Consulting; Targeted marketing director (Tesco Clubcard), and Group strategy director, Tesco Stores. The growth overseen by Wade-Gery has been achieved thr ough a combination of initiatives. Product range development is one key area. In early 2005, Tesco. com fulfilled 150,000 grocery orders a week but now also offers more intangible offerings, such as e-diets and music downloads. Wade-Gery has also focused on improving the customer experience online – the time it takes for a new customer to complete their first order has been decreased from over an hour to 35 minutes through usability work culminating in a major site revision. To support the business has it diversifies into new areas, Wade-Gery’s strategy was ‘to make home delivery part of the DNA of Tesco’ according to NMA (2005). She continues: ‘What we offer is delivery to your home of a Tesco service – its an obvious extension of the home-delivered groceries concept. ’ My May 2005, Tesco. com had 30,000 customers signed up for DVD rental, through partner Video Island (who run the rival Screenselect service). Over the next year, her target is to treble this total, while also extending home-delivery services to the likes of bulk wine and white goods. Wade-Gery looks to achieve synergy between the range of services offered. For example, its partnership with eDiets can be promoted through the Tesco Clubcard loyalty scheme, with mailings to 10m customers a year. In July 2004, Tesco. com Limited paid ? 2 million for the exclusive licence to eDiets. com in the UK and Ireland under the URLs www. eDietsUK. com and www. eDiets. ie. Through promoting these services through these URLs, Tesco can use the dieting business to grow use of the Tesco. com service and in-store sales. To help keep focus on home retail-delivery, Wade-Gery sold women’s portal iVillage (www. ivillage. co. uk) back to its US owners for an undisclosed sum in March 2004. She explained to NMA: ‘Its a very different sort of product to the other services that were embarking on. In my mind, we stand for providing services and products that you buy, which is slightly different to the world of providing information. ’ The implication is that there was insufficient revenue from ad sales on iVillage and insufficient opportunities to promote Tesco. com sales. However, iVillage was a useful learning experience in that there are some parallels with iVillage, such as message boards and community advisors. Wade-Gery is also director of Tesco Mobile, the joint ‘Pay-As-You-Go’ venture with O2 which is mainly serviced online, although promoted in-store and via direct mail. Tesco also offer broadband and dialup ISP services, but believe the market for Internet telephony (provided through Skype and Vonage for example) is not sufficiently developed. Tesco. com have concentrated on more traditional services which have the demand, for example, Tesco Telecom fixed-line services attracted over a million customers in its first year. However, this is not to say, that Tesco. com will not invest in relatively new services. In November 2004, Tescos introduced a music download service and just six months later, she estimates they have around 10% market share – one of the benefits of launching relatively early. Again, there is synergy, this time with hardware sales. NMA (2005) reported that as MP3 players were unwrapped, sales went up – even on Christmas Day! She says: ‘The exciting thing about digital is where can you take it in the future. As the technology grows, well be able to turn Tesco. com into a digital download store of all sorts, rather than just music. Clearly, film [through video on demand] would be next. ’ But it has to be based firmly on analysis of customer demand. She says : ‘The number one thing for us is whether the product is something that customers are saying they want, has it reached a point where mass-market customers are interested? ’ There also has to be scope for simplification. NMA (2005) notes that Tesco is built on a core premise of convenience and value and Wade-Gery believes what its already done with mobile tariffs, broadband packages and music downloads are good examples of the retailers knack for streamlining propositions. She says: ‘Weve actually managed to get people joining broadband who have never even had a dial-up service’

What are the effect of bad parenting :: essays research papers

What are the affects of poor parenting: I always believed that you could see the effects of bad parenting, by studying the youth of today opposed to the youth of sixty years ago. The effects of bad parenting can be measured in many different ways. One of the things that we all forget about is â€Å"lead by example†. What we as adults, teach our children, is what our future generations will be as people. Another way you can observe the results is by looking at our prisons and jails. How many of the inmates really had an idealistic life, as opposed to the one’s that had a hard time growing up? Would their lives be any different today if; for example mom hadn’t worked or if dad didn’t drink. Who’s to say what works and what doesn’t work. Kids learn by watching adults and other children do the things that they do. You’re not going to be to convincing, if you tell impressionable children not to do something when they themselves are doing what they preach not to do. I have talked to a few people about this subject and these are some of the response’s that I have gottenâ€Å" If your not taught at home right and wrong, how are you supposed to learn† Brian twenty three and has no children, Maria thirty six, two children says â€Å" You have to listen to what your children are saying, and don’t talk at them† finally, Ken fifty one, one son said â€Å" I remember when my parents weren’t around if I was doing something I shouldn’t have been doing, my neighbors had the right to correct my actions in place of my parents, today people turn a blind eye for threat of negative ramifications. Whether that is angry parents or social services, to day people just aren’t involved like they used to be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some people blame the school system, their kids friends, society, television, video games, the Internet, and being from a different culture but they never blame themselves for the poor behavior their children grow up to have. Raising children anywhere has to be a full time job, being a positive influence to some people just doesn’t seem to mean as much to people anymore. I could go on and on about this subject, listing the reasons why and what happens when bad

Describe marketing situations in which the use of qualitative research methods would be appropriate Essay

Describe marketing situations in which the use of qualitative research methods would be appropriate. According to Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin Qualitative research is a methodology that elaborate interpretations of phenomenal of interest without depending on numerical measurement ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, pg 65 ) . It is characterised by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social life, and it’s methods which generate words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis ( Patton, Cochrain, 2002 ) . In terms of marketing situations, qualitative research methods are appropriate to be used when the organization root for new product idea generation and development, strength and weaknesses of products/ brands and studying emotions and attitudes on societal and public affairs issues (qrca. org). To maximize understanding on the situation, there are two qualitative research methods that can be consider is Focus Groups and Questionnaires. With these methods, we identify the benefits as well as limitations of using these research methods. Focus groups can be define as an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of people ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, p71) . An approximately 60 to 90 minute discussion is led by a trained moderator with 8 to 12 relatively homogenous but unacquainted individuals who are brought together to discuss a specific topic ( Gunn, 2004) . Focus groups allow people to discuss their feelings, anxieties and frustrations, as well as the depth of their convictions, in their own words ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, p72 ) . The benefits of focus groups can be presented for an in-depth exploration of new ideas, opinions, perceptions, and reactions to concepts and messaging. Focus groups often serve as exploratory research to assist survey design of subsequent quantitative research methods. Similarly, they can also be useful in validating and/ or clarifying results garnered from previous quantitative research and can be use to elicit â€Å" in their own words descriptions of products, services or issues being discussed. Conferences and other events present relatively low-cost opportunities to conduct focus groups with target audiences. There tend to be few interviewer effects on dialog because individuals tend to be influenced more by the group discussion than by the moderator. Participants are usually enthusiastic and spontaneous in their responses and groups tend to naturally cover more questions, opinions and comments than researchers could have anticipated. The disadvantage of the focus group however shows that the results from focus groups are qualitative and nonprojectable to larger populations. They require well-trained moderators to manage discussions, maintain focus, and minimize affects of the personalities and behaviours of individual participants on others and/or the entire group. Logistical and cost considerations include room and food set-up, and incentives are typically needed to encourage response. Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of interest. Ideally, there would then be a qualitative ‘check’ on a sample of questionnaire replies to see if respondents were interpreting items in the way intended. Alternatively, a questionnaire might be used in the first instance, followed by qualitative techniques on a sample as a check and to fill out certain features of the questionnaire replies. Interaction among techniques in this way is typical of qualitative research.

Background And Development Of Reinforcement Theory - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2776 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? BF Skinner and his associates proposed reinforcement theory of motivation. Reinforcement theory (also called as operant Conditioning) states that individual s behavior is a function of its consequences. It is based on law of effect . 2.2 Law of Effect OB Mod relies heavily on the law of effect, which states that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences. ( Newstrom W. John, p no 111 ) Reinforcement theory of motivation looks out on the perception of individuals. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is applied for analyzing controlling mechanism for individual s behavior. However, it does not focus on the causes of individu al s behavior. 2.3 Behavior Modification Organizational behavior modification, or OB Mod, is the application in organizations of the principles of behavior modification, which evolved from the work of B.F. Skinner. OB Mod and the next several models are process theories of motivation, since they provide perspectives on the dynamics by which employees can be motivated. ( Newstrom W. John, p no 111 ) The figure below illustrates the basic steps in OB mod. Source: Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations by Ricky W. Griffin,Gregory Moorhead The first step is to identify performance related behavioral events that are the desirable and undesirable behaviors. A manager of a restaurant might decide the most important behavior for the steward is to greet customers warmly and serve them. The second step in behavior modification is for, managers to baseline the performance of each individual which is usually calculated in percentage across different time inter vals. Example if any sales representative is getting around 25% of the total sales as required by the company. The third step is to identify existing behavior contingencies or consequences of performance exactly how the employee is performing. The fourth step is to develop intervention strategies in other words some element of the performance reward- linkage structure, process, technology, groups, or tasks is changed to make high level performance more rewarding. After the intervention step, the manager again measures performance to determine whether the desired effect has been achieved. If not manager must again re design the intervention strategy or repeat the entire process. Next step is to maintain desirable behaviors through positive reinforcement for example granting incentives every time a desired behavior is shown by the employee. Finally, managers has to evaluate performance management as to how the employee are performing and by offering long term rewards li ke increase in pay, promotion to sustain ongoing efforts to improve performance. (Griffin W. Rickey 9th edition, p no 108 ) Chapter 4 Types of Reinforcement Reinforcement Methods Source: The fundamentals of Organization Behavior by Henri L. Tossi, Neal P. Mero 3.1 Positive Reinforcement: Thomas J. Peters, author of In Search of Excellence, emphasizes that organizations striving for success need to celebrate what you want to see more of from your employees. In order to do this it is essential to understand the concept of positive reinforcement and its easy integration into your organization. Positive reinforcement is a standard analyzing tool that can be used in workplace, educational institutions and even in our day to day life, which is connected to performance or behavior. Positive reinforcement is used by managers to extract the desired behavior from the employee keeping organization success in mind. Positive reinforcement can be achieved by observing a nd caring about an employee, positive reinforcement has a major impact on employee motivation, satisfaction, productivity and loyalty in attaining individual success. As well employee success contributes to the overall improvement in the organization s performance. As all of these results and success factors of positive reinforcement begin to come together, your organization will leap ahead in its increasingly competitive marketplace. Positive reinforcement in an organization can be achieved in many ways like praising the employee if he has achieved his target and giving incentives if the employee has completed the project for the month and taking the team out for a dinner and appreciate their effort and also managers can provide training to the employees who has achieved the goals and objectives of the organization. This will be immediately followed by the positive behavior; the employee will see a link between behavior and positive consequences and will be motivated to repeat s imilar behaviors in future. And employees tend to repeat the same in order to gain appreciation. Shaping is a methodical and progressive application of positive reinforcement. It occurs when more frequent, or more powerful, reinforcements are successively given as the employee comes closer to the desired behavior8. Even though the desired behavior is not shown by the employee, it will be encouraged by giving reinforcement for behavior in the right direction. Shaping can be used by managers to train the employee for complex tasks/assignments. 3.2 Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is one which involves the removal of undesired behavior of an employee. Negative reinforcement is also known as Avoidance. In other words negative reinforcement is used to increase the desired behavior. Rather than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence (Griffin W. Rickey 9th edition, p no 108 ). This also involves removal of objectionable outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated. Example of common undesired behavior of employee in an organization Employees rushing and not quality checking their own work. Talking to colleagues instead of responding to customers in a timely manner which hampers the growth of the organization Being unpleasant, rude or argumentative to team mates. Opposing all improvement suggestions made by the managers. Repeatedly raising trivial issues. Taking excessive breaks. Not showing interest in learning new things related to work. Managers can apply negative reinforcement theory to control the behavior of the employee Example 1: if the employee is not showing interest in the work and is showing casual attitude, managers can speak to the employee and cut down the incentive so that deduction may correct the behavior of the employee, so here incentive acts as a catalyst to change the behavior of the employee. Example 2: Man agers pressurize the employee if the report/project is not completed on time, these results in employee completing the report/project to avoid pressure from the manager. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Negative reinforcement can be used effectively by managers to reshape the behavior of the employee in the organization and change to desired behavior. So negative reinforcement is one of the standard reinforce that can be used by managers. 3.3 Punishment: Punishment is another process in reinforcement theory which managers can implement on employee to reduce the frequency of undesirable behaviors. Punishment is an unpleasant, or aversive, consequence of a behavior. Examples of punishment are verbal or written reprimands, pay cut, layoffs, loss of privileges and may be termination. (Griff in W. Rickey 9th edition ) Punishment is different from negative reinforcement, in negative reinforcement is used to increase the desired behavior of the employee whereas in punishment the unpleasant behavior is eliminated by having a negative event which follows the behavior of the employee. Here in punishment the employee stops or avoids undesirable consequences. Punishment must be used as a tool to change the behavior of the employee and give employee a chance to correct his behavior. Besides undesired behavior may far reach negative effects if they go unpunished. (Griffin W. Rickey 9th edition, p no 105 ) Example 1: Manager must punish the employee if he continues to underperform after several warnings and does not show any improvements. Punishment should be used as a last resort to change the behavior of the employee because it may put lot of pressure and stress which may result in unpredictable outcome. Punishment may not permanently eliminate undesired behavior be cause sometimes it will be not having an alternative to the desired behavior. 3.4 Extinction: Extinction is referred as elimination of desired behavior when manager s hold back positive reinforcement. If rewards are withdrawn for behaviors that were previously reinforced, the behaviors will probably become less frequent and die out. (Griffin W. Rickey 9th edition, p no 105 ) The behavior of the employee is no longer reinforced and is less likely to occur in future and may affect the organization growth, while positive reinforcement contributes to the overall growth of the organization extinction can hamper the growth by not recognizing employee performance. Example 1: If the employee is continually praised for the promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, Extinction is the most important part of reinforcement theory because it may affect the e mployee productivity or creativity which reflects in the employee performance. So as to avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral consequences and maintain his good performance. If managers inadvertently or otherwise, stop rewarding valuable behaviors such as good performance, those behaviors may also become extinct. (Griffin W. Rickey 9th edition, p no 105 ) Chapter 5 Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement theory are based on when managers should apply different types of reinforcement theory to shape or reshape the desired behavior of the employees. Applying different types completely depends on the situation. The table below shows summarizes the five basic reinforcement schedules that managers can use Source: Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations by Ricky W. Griffin, Gregory Moorhead The two main types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent. Although the schedul e of reinforcement often depends on practical considerations, reinforcement is always delivered according to some schedule. ( Slocump W. John no 108 ) 5.1 Continuous Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement rewards behaviour every time it occurs. Continuous reinforcement is very effective in motivating desirable behaviors, especially in the early stages of learning, when the goal is to familiarize the employee being conditioned with the basic ground rules of the situation. Continuous reinforcement must be provided promptly and consistently in order to work. Managers must closely monitor the behavior of the employee to reward every time he delivers desirable behaviors. Partial reinforcement may affect the employee from showing desired behavior, if the employee is praised for every time he completes his work and will not receive any acclamation for the subsequent works done, the employee may stop putting the extra effort. Every time reinforcement is applied it strengthens behav ior, so continuous reinforcement leads to very rapid increases in the rate of behavior. It is especially useful, then, when the task is to shape up some new behavior or behavior chain. ( Chance Paul, p no 177 ) 5.2 Fixed Interval Reinforcement Fixed interval reinforcement is defined as the reinforcement schedule where rewards are spaced at uniform levels. The critical variable is time, and it is held constant. This is the predominant schedule for most salaried employees11. Examples of fixed interval reinforcement may be monthly salaries given to employee, pay check given on weekly basis; employees are rewarded on a fixed interval reinforcement schedule. ( Robbins, Judge, Millet, p no 59 ) In fixed interval reinforcement employee are not rewarded whenever they show desired behavior, they will be rewarded on a monthly, weekly basis unlike in continuous reinforcement employee will be rewarded every time a desired behavior is occurred. Unfortunately, in many situations th e fixed interval schedule does not necessarily maintain high performance levels. Example: if employees know that they will be paid and visited by manager on a weekly basis, they may be motivated to work hard at that point of time, to gain praise and recognition. And other days of the week the employees may not work so hard because they have learned that reinforcement is unlikely except during the weekly visit. 5.3 Variable Interval Reinforcement Variable reinforcement uses time as the basis for applying reinforcement, but it varies the interval between reinforcement. This schedule is inappropriate for paying wages, but it can work well for other types of positive reinforcement such as praise and recognition and for avoidance. ( Griffin W. Ricky, 9th Edition, p no 105 ) Considering the above example for variable reinforcement if manager s visits employees work stations any time during the week, so they will be having no idea of when the manager will be visiting their work stations, so employee will be motivated to work hard for a longer period of time. 5.4 Fixed Ratio In a fixed- ratio schedule, after a fixed or constant amount number of responses are given, a reward is initiated. ( Robbins, Judge, Millet ) With fixed-ratio reinforcement, the number of behaviors needed to obtain reinforcement is constant. Fixed interval means it happens at the same rate at the same time. Like an allowance that you receive on the 20th of every month. 5.5 Variable Ratio Variable Ratio reinforcement, the number of behaviors required for reinforcement varies over time. An employee performing under a variable ratio schedule is motivated to work hard because each successful behavior increases the probability that the next one will result in reinforcement14. ( Griffin W. Ricky, 9th Edition, p no 106 ) Variable ratio reinforcement tends to be the most powerful of the entire reinforcement schedules because in variable ratio the number of desired behavior re quired for reinforcement is not important, intervals between reinforcement is very crucial, interval between reinforcement must not be too long that the employee will be demotivated and stops trying it. Example: Variable ratio refers to getting different amount money at different times. This could be seen in someone who is paid in commission the more cars a person sells, the more money he makes, therefore it is a ratio and he/she doesn t know how many cars they are going to sell to make money, so they must sell as many cars as possible. Chapter 6 Being a Motivating Manager In previous chapters we have discussed about the types and schedules of reinforcement, in this chapter we will discuss few points about how manager should motivate the employee in order to get the best results out of them: 1) Treat staff well: Manager has to be friendly with the entire employees in the organization and also has to maintain a level of distance with his staff, which is bit complic ated. Manager should motivate the employee by having timely discussions and group meetings and encouraging them for the desired behavior. Small gestures of this type help in building up of a cordial relationship. (2) Recognize the differences: Recognizing the difference is very difficult on the manager s part, which should be carried out very cautiously because all the employees in the organization vibrate to a different pace, so motivating one employee may affect other employee growth and can also demotivated him/her. Understanding and recognizing the differences between the individual is very important. (3) Set realistic goals: Set moderate goals. Setting too high a task creates a feeling of non-achievement, right from the beginning itself. The goals set should be such which seem feasible to the employees to be achieved. A slightly higher target than expected provides a challenge. (4) Prevent Demonization: The job of the manager is to motivate the employee workin g under him, the role of manager includes both motivating and punishing the employee, but punishment must be used as an last resort to change the behavior of the employee else it may affect the productivity of the employees. (5) Non-financial rewards: Apart from giving incentives, pay raise, manager has to focus on non-monetary rewards such as an achievement award or a letter of appreciation which boosts the efficiency of the staffs to work harder and also gain more accolades in future which will create a competitive environment in the work place. Chapter 7 Conclusion Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behaviour. Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not reward all employees simultaneously. They must tell the employees what they are not doing correct and guide them properly to ensure that all the employee work towards achieving the organization success. The main objective of reinforcement th eory is to ensure that employees perform the tasks assigned to them as fast as they can, take new projects and put their maximum efforts in achieving the tasks and increase there efficiency. Manager must see the employees in the human perspective and not in business perspective, so manager must give chances to the employees to move towards the desired behavior from the undesired, which helps both the employee in increasing the frequency of desired behavior and managers to be successful and build a good rapport with the employees. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Background And Development Of Reinforcement Theory" essay for you Create order